RACISM IN SPORT
The issue of race and sport in the United States is somewhat baffling in that many persons would rather it not be addressed at all even though sport has been intricately intertwined with racial issues in the United States throughout the Twentieth Century (e. g., The Black Athlete, 1989). Those who would have us omit the topic altogether argue that analyses typically single out the black athlete, and then attempt to explain his/her inordinate success in ways different than we do that of other groups. Critics contend that this approach is racist, since it perpetuates the idea that blacks are different, and often inferior.
The issue of race and sport in the United States is somewhat baffling in that many persons would rather it not be addressed at all even though sport has been intricately intertwined with racial issues in the United States throughout the Twentieth Century (e. g., The Black Athlete, 1989). Those who would have us omit the topic altogether argue that analyses typically single out the black athlete, and then attempt to explain his/her inordinate success in ways different than we do that of other groups. Critics contend that this approach is racist, since it perpetuates the idea that blacks are different, and often inferior.
The belief that blacks are intellectually inferior to whites can best be illustrated in a sport context by the comments made by former Los Angeles Dodger Vice President for player personnel, Al Campanis on the 40th anniversary of Jackie Robinson’s arrival into major league baseball. Campanis was invited to appear on ABC's Nightline hosted by Ted Koppel. During the interview, Campanis was asked why he thought so few blacks were in management positions in baseball. Campanis replied: "I truly believe they may not have some of the necessities to be a field manager or perhaps a general manager" (Wilhelm, 1987, p. 46). He also stated that blacks were not adapted to be swimmers because of a lack of buoyancy. Although Campanis was fired within 48 hours for his comments, it is interesting to note that he was considered to be one of baseballs more notable equal-opportunity employers (Neff, 1987), and had a reputation for fairness (Callahan, 1987). Interestingly, Frank Robinson, baseball’s first black manager, in a subsequent interview stated that Campanis was a descent man who simply was a product of baseball’s traditional thinking (Wilhelm, 1987).
Such stereotypical thinking was apparently not an innocuous private matter unique to Campanis, since at the time only three blacks had managed major league teams, and only Henry Aaron held an administrative position of any authority, as Vice President and Director of Player Development for the Atlanta Braves. Frank Robinson, when asked whether he was surprised by Campanis’ remarks, corroborated Edwards assertion in responding that there was a widely held belief in baseball "... that blacks aren't smart enough to be managers or third-base coaches or part of the front office. There's a belief that they're fine when it comes to the physical part of the game, but if it involves brains they just can't handle it" (Wilhelm, 1987, p. 46).
Despite the beliefs about race based abilities that commentators, managers, coaches, owners, and administrators hold, there are also stereotypes held by performers themselves which are likely to inhibit or enhance their involvement in an activity. If a black child believes that she will never be a competitive swimmer because of a lack of buoyancy, but thinks that she has a biological advantage in sprinting, she will probably self-select herself into the latter activity. By the same token, if a white child believes that he can not jump high because of race based physical limitations, but has the hand-eye coordination necessary for a sport like tennis, he too will direct his energies to that which he thinks will bring him success. Seemingly, such beliefs mediate the direction and intensity of behavior, as much, if not more so than heredity, and can account for current sport demographics. As well, beliefs, like genes, tend to be passed down from generation to generation making the resolution of nature-nurture debates difficult, if not impossible.
Consequently, the argument for examining this area is to determine what is fact and what is fiction. Are performance disparities between black and white athletes really a function of fundamental differences in physique and physiology, or are they a result of environmental and cultural contingencies? Contrary to what some may argue, an objective examination of these issues attempts to fairly examine the evidence, and to challenge beliefs held and conveyed by individuals such as Al Campanis. In the end, we may find that these individuals, like many others are not really bigots, but simply misinformed about what really is known about race and performance. Seemingly, knowledge can help us get beyond the false stereotypes that pervade our thinking, and help us to direct our behavior in more productive directions. In the words of athletic geneticist Claude Bouchard "... I have always worked with the hypothesis that ignorance fosters prejudice. And that knowledge is the greatest safeguard against prejudice" (The Black Athlete, 1989).
Observations of Demographics
Perhaps the reason that racial issues in sport capture the attention of so many people is a result of demographics. African-Americans, who earlier in the century were segregated into black leagues, have in less than 50 years become the dominant racial group in basketball and football, despite the fact that they only make up 12.6% of the US population (U.S. Census Bureau, 1998). Today black players constitute 77% of the NBA, 64% of the WNBA, 65% of the NFL, and 15% of MLB (Lapchick and Mathews, 1999). As well, in college 60% of male Division I basketball players and 51% of football players are black. African-American females constitute 35% of Division I basketball players and 31% of cross country-track and field athletes (NCAA, 1988). From the era of Jackie Robinson when black athletes in white leagues were an anomaly, to the present day, a role reversal has come about. As seen in Table 1, black athletes emerged from segregated black leagues after World War 2, and have become disproportionately represented in basketball, football, track and field, boxing, and to a lesser extent in baseball. This swift demographic shift has stimulated a great deal of interest in the question of why blacks have become such a dominant force in our major sports.
Table 1. Changing Demographics in Major Sports.
NBA
In 1949 there were no black NBA players.
In 1950 Chuck Cooper was the first black signed by an NBA team.
In 1958 the proportion of blacks in the general population approximated the percentage of blacks playing professional basketball.
In 1998, 77% of all professional basketball players were black.
NFL
In 1944 there were no blacks in professional "white" football.
In 1946 Marion Motley is the first black in "white" professional football.
In 1960 the proportion of blacks in the general population approximated the percentage of blacks playing professional football.
In 1985, 52% of all professional football players were black.
In 1998 65% of all professional football players were black.
MLB
In 1946 there were no blacks in "white" MLB.
In 1947 Jackie Robinson was the first black to sign with a "whit" team
In 1957 the proportion of blacks in the general population approximated the percentage of blacks playing professional baseball (11-12%).
In 1998 15% of all professional baseball players were black.
No higher resolution available.Jrobinson.jpg (372 × 296 pixel, file size: 18 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg)
NBA
In 1949 there were no black NBA players.
In 1950 Chuck Cooper was the first black signed by an NBA team.
In 1958 the proportion of blacks in the general population approximated the percentage of blacks playing professional basketball.
In 1998, 77% of all professional basketball players were black.
NFL
In 1944 there were no blacks in professional "white" football.
In 1946 Marion Motley is the first black in "white" professional football.
In 1960 the proportion of blacks in the general population approximated the percentage of blacks playing professional football.
In 1985, 52% of all professional football players were black.
In 1998 65% of all professional football players were black.
MLB
In 1946 there were no blacks in "white" MLB.
In 1947 Jackie Robinson was the first black to sign with a "whit" team
In 1957 the proportion of blacks in the general population approximated the percentage of blacks playing professional baseball (11-12%).
In 1998 15% of all professional baseball players were black.
No higher resolution available.Jrobinson.jpg (372 × 296 pixel, file size: 18 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg)
Jack Roosevelt "Jackie" Robinson (January 31, 1919 – October 24, 1972) became the first African-American major league baseball player of the modern era in 1947.[1] While not the first African American professional baseball player in United States history, his Major League debut with the Brooklyn Dodgers ended approximately eighty years of baseball segregation, also known as the baseball color line. In the United States at this time, many white people believed that blacks and whites should be segregated or kept apart in many phases of life, including sport.
July 28, 1997
AMERICAN INDIAN EDUCATION SPECIALIST WORKS TO END RACISM IN SPORTS CULTURE
This is an article depicting a true story that frightens even the cold hearted. The issues of race that plague society today are unfortunate, but when we involve the children who will paint the future it’s hard not to be sickened how ignorance can truly still be alive today.
LAWRENCE - As principal of a magnet Indian school in Minnesota, Cornel Pewewardy took a troop of youngsters to a Minnesota Vikings football game. The opposing team was the Washington Redskins.
When he led the first- and second-graders into the stadium, Pewewardy was sickened to hear a group of Vikings fans curse the children as "redskins" and spit and throw rocks at them.
Pewewardy, who joined the University of Kansas School of Education faculty last year and who is Comanche and Kiowa, recalls telling the hurt, baffled youngsters: "These people ignorant. They don't know what they are doing. They are blind, full of hate."
The children's experience unfortunately is not an extreme example of the disrespect and insensitivity fostered by the use of American Indian images in sports, says Pewewardy, a specialist in education of American Indian children.
"My weapon to combat ignorance and racism is education," Pewewardy says.
AMERICAN INDIAN EDUCATION SPECIALIST WORKS TO END RACISM IN SPORTS CULTURE
This is an article depicting a true story that frightens even the cold hearted. The issues of race that plague society today are unfortunate, but when we involve the children who will paint the future it’s hard not to be sickened how ignorance can truly still be alive today.
LAWRENCE - As principal of a magnet Indian school in Minnesota, Cornel Pewewardy took a troop of youngsters to a Minnesota Vikings football game. The opposing team was the Washington Redskins.
When he led the first- and second-graders into the stadium, Pewewardy was sickened to hear a group of Vikings fans curse the children as "redskins" and spit and throw rocks at them.
Pewewardy, who joined the University of Kansas School of Education faculty last year and who is Comanche and Kiowa, recalls telling the hurt, baffled youngsters: "These people ignorant. They don't know what they are doing. They are blind, full of hate."
The children's experience unfortunately is not an extreme example of the disrespect and insensitivity fostered by the use of American Indian images in sports, says Pewewardy, a specialist in education of American Indian children.
"My weapon to combat ignorance and racism is education," Pewewardy says.
